Literature Review Are Small Businesses always under

Literature Review Are Small Businesses always under Introduction Small businesses are always grappling with the challenge of insufficient capital, which has limited their growth and expansion amidst challenges of globalization. Mega companies have taken advantage of globalization factors that favor them and encroach into the remotest markets that favored survival of small businesses, hence offering stiffer competition.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Literature Review: Are Small Businesses always under-funded? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Since globalization compels small business to expand and keep in tandem with business dynamics, insufficient capital becomes the greatest impediment that affects growth and development of small businesses relative to large businesses. According to Cavaluzzo and Wolken (2002), economic experts are asserting that insufficient capital is one of the greatest challenges facing the growth and development of small businesses ac ross the world (p.7). Given that capital is the backbone of any business enterprise, insufficient capital has been always an impediment to growth and development of small businesses. Many small businesses have been stagnating for a long period or growing at a slower pace because insufficient capital prevents them from expanding and developing into mega businesses. Therefore, literature review examines how economic experts view the issue of insufficient capital and importance of capital to small businesses. Insufficient Capital in Small Businesses Since insufficient capital has led to underfunding of small businesses, economic experts have been trying to find out if underfunding is a crucial factor that contributes to stagnation of business growth and development or there are other mediating factors. However, apparent factor that causes stagnation and poor performance of small businesses is underfunding. It is evident that capital is a significant factor in business that differentiat es between small and large businesses. Entrepreneurs with a limited amount of capital invest in small businesses; on the other hand, entrepreneurs who have unlimited capital tend to invest in mega businesses. Thus, capital is a limiting factor that defines the size of investment that entrepreneurs can venture. Hosmer (2009) states that, due to the expansive room of investment, small businesses always have deficient capital (p.4). The need to expand and obtain optimum profits from a given investment demands enough capital, which is always lacking in small businesses. So entrepreneurs of small businesses are grappling with the challenge of meeting customers’ demands as well as competing effectively with large businesses, yet they have limited capital. As small businesses contribute significantly to economic growth and development of a nation, economic experts have delved into ways of encouraging and improving small businesses. One of the recommendation of enhancing growth and d evelopment of small businesses is by making entrepreneurs access loans.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Accessibility to loans significantly determines the size of businesses that entrepreneurs can venture into, since capital is an impediment factor in growth and development of small businesses. Schacht (2010) argues that, large businesses and mega companies have been in a position to access loans and credit from various financial institutions and this advantage has considerably boosted their growth and development in the competitive business environments that threaten the existence of small businesses (p.4). Basing on the fact that large businesses are accessible to loans and credit from financial institutions, which have made them prosper, it thus follows that enhancing accessibility small businesses to loans, and credit will boost their growth and devel opment. Luetkenhorst and Geiger (2004) argue that, small businesses make a significant contribution to economic and social stability of a nation; hence, policies that enhance their accessibility to loans and credit from financial institutions are imperative (p.9). Therefore, governments need to streamline restrictive and discriminative policies that prevent entrepreneurs of small business from accessing loans and credits. Economic experts envisage that, equal access of loans and credit by all entrepreneurs provides a level ground that does not disadvantage small businesses relative to large businesses. Financial institutions and other credit institutions have been discriminating against small businesses because they do not have collateral security that would guarantee repayment of loans. In contrast, leading businesses have well established investments that financial institutions can rely on as collateral security. Hence, in accessibility of loans and credit has been subject to natu re of collateral security that entrepreneurs possess. Disparity in collateral security that small and large businesses offer when borrowing loans indicates differential growth rate of the two businesses. According to Kappel and Ishengoma (2008), the rate of business growth is directly proportional to the rate of investment (p.7). Thus, small business have a low rate of investment due to limited access to loans, which hampers growth and development, unlike large businesses that have unlimited access to loans. Therefore, economic experts are recommending that small businesses should have access to loans for them to solve the problem of insufficient capital that seems to cripple business progress.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Literature Review: Are Small Businesses always under-funded? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research carried out to study growth and development of businesses has shown that the proc ess occurs in five stages. At the first stage, the business viability entirely relies on the amount of capital invested in it. For a business to survive and pick up well, it must have sufficient capital. Existence stage is the first stage that determines whether a business will survive or not. At this stage, business is grappling with challenges such as capital and expanding market share. Kitching, Smallbone, Xhenet (2010) argue that, although customers may increase due to prevailing market conditions, capital becomes a limiting factor that affect the expansion of business to satisfy increasing number of customers (p.3). At existence stage, an entrepreneur entirely rely on invested capital as a driving force of business since there are no formal strategies and the owner solely run the business. Churchill and Lewis (1983) argue that, entrepreneurs usually close their businesses at existence stage due to insufficient capital for expansion (P.4). Since entrepreneurs are sole owners of small business, they feel exhausted to spend time, energy and a vast amount of capital, and thus quit establishing business at early stages of business growth. Therefore, it means insufficient capital is a serious impediment to the establishment and development of small businesses. Although many economic experts argue that insufficient capital is a significant factor that determines survival of small businesses, some economic experts argue that other factors that contribute considerably to growth and expansion of small business exist. For instance, size of market share that small businesses serve determines their growth rather than the amount of capital invested. The argument is only true if customers are limited, but in competitive markets where customers are many, amount of capital, which an entrepreneur invests in certain business, determines its competitiveness and subsequently its growth and development. Hence, Osei (1998) argues that, enhancing accessibility of loans and credi t to small businesses is central in stimulating economic growth of a nation (p.9). Small businesses contribute to economic growth and development because they contribute a considerable amount of taxes and create employment to a large number of people. Thus, formulation of policies and laws that enhance accessibility to loans is critical in boosting growth and development of small businesses.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Importance of Capital to Small Businesses Capital is particularly crucial in small businesses because it does not only determine growth and development of a business but also extent of satisfying customers. For an entrepreneur to start a business, capital is the most decisive factor that comes into consideration. This means that amount of capital that an entrepreneur start business with reflects viability of a business. Investing a small amount of capital implies that a business will have a low viability while investing a prodigious amount of capital shows enhanced viability of a business. Smallbone (2005) argues that, the only way of boosting growth and development of small businesses is by improving accessibility of capital (p.13). Many small businesses have been stagnating for years due lack of sufficient capital that would have enhanced expansion. In contrast, since successful businesses can easily access capital, they have experienced tremendous growth and development within a few years. Thus, capital is a fundamental factor that defines destiny of business. Insufficient capital affects growth and development of small businesses. Study carried out to ascertain concerns of entrepreneurs who own small businesses showed that insufficiency and inaccessibility of capital was an impediment factor that caused stagnation in businesses (Peek, Rosengren 1998, p.806). Entrepreneurs of small businesses perceive that they would have made significant progress in business if only they had all capital they needed. Comparative study of large and small businesses shows that the differential growth rate between the two entities is due to the invested capital and accessibility of loans. Blanchflower, Levine, and Zimmerman (1998) argue that, small business entrepreneurs have been experiencing discrimination since lending institutions perceive them as having limited collateral security relative to large businesses; thus, large businesses access enormous amount of capital as c ompared to small businesses (p.8). Therefore, economic experts have been advocating for extension of loans to small businesses, so that they could compete effectively with large businesses, for capital is an integral factor in business. Realizing the contribution of small businesses to economic growth and development, Small Business Administration of United States has recommended for enhanced access of capital to all entrepreneurs. According to Walter (2009), the Small Business Administration has taken several initiatives such as enhancing access to capital and reducing taxes as a way of promoting growth and development of small businesses (p.144). It is apparent that large businesses have been having a competitive advantage over small businesses because of accessibility to capital; however, increased accessibility of capital by small businesses is going to provide a level field where businesses can compete equally. Therefore, if a country needs to boost its economic stability in vi ew of globalization, accessibility of capital should not be a factor that limits growth and development of small business. Conclusion Growth and development of businesses depends on the amount of capital invested. It is evident that large businesses grow and develop faster as compared to small businesses because of the amount of capital. In this view, economic experts perceive that small businesses have been stagnating for years, for they do not have sufficient capital that is essential for expansion. Moreover, for decades, financial institutions have been discriminating against small businesses because they do not have enough collateral security to qualify them for loans. However, realization by various governments that small businesses contribute significantly to economic growth and development has led to the formulation of laws and policies that aid small business to grow and develop amidst competitive environment dominated by large businesses. Lending institutions, too, have bee n encouraging small businesses to borrow loans after realizing they are forms of lucrative investments just like giant businesses. References Blanchflower, G., Levine, P., Zimmerman, D., 1998. Discrimination in the Small Business Credit Market. National Bureau of Economic Research, pp. 1-11. Cavaluzzo, S., Wolken, D., 2002. Competition, Small Business Financing, and Discrimination: Evidence from a New Survey. Journal of Business, 75(4), pp. 1-23. Churchill, N., Lewis, V., 1983. The five Stages of Small Business Growth. Harvard  Business Review, pp. 1-12. Hosmer, L., 2009. A Venture Capital Primer for Small Business: Financial Management Series. United States Small Business Administration, pp. 1-15. Kappel, R., Ishengoma, E., 2008. Business Constraints and Growth Potential of Micro and Small Manufacturing Enterprises in Uganda. German Institute of Global and Area Studies, pp. 1-29. Kitching, J., Smallbone, D., Xhenet, M., 2010. Have Small businesses Beaten Recession. Small Bus iness Research Centre, Kingston University, pp. 1-16. Luetkenhorst, W., Geiger, R., (2004). Effective Policies for Small Business: A guide for the Policy Review Process and Strategic Plans for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, pp. 1-110. Osei, K., 1998. Analysis of Factors Affecting the Development of an Emerging Capital Market: The Case of the Ghana Stock Market. African Economic Research Consortium, pp. 1-81. Peek, J., Rosengren, E., 1998. Bank Consolidation and Small Business Lending: It Is Not Just Bank Size that Matters. Journal of Banking and Finance, 22, pp. 799-819 Schacht, W., 2010. Small Business Innovation Research Program. Congressional  Research Service, pp. 1-9. Smallbone, D., 2005. Regulation and Small Firm Performance and Growth: A Review of the Literature. Small Business Centre, Kingston University, pp. 1-20. Walter, P. (2007). Supporting America’s Small Businesses. Small Business  Administration, pp. 143-156.

The problems and development of preschool education in China Dissertation

The problems and development of preschool education in China - Dissertation Example As such, it is important that the quality of management and teaching staff is up to certain standards nationwide so that young children are more adequately prepared for transition into primary school at age 4. That is the focus of this study. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 4 Statement of the Problem 5 Purpose of the Study 6 Summary 6 Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 8 Chapter 3: Methodlogy 16 Research Method and Design Appropriateness 17 Research Questions 18 Population 19 Sampling Frame 20 Informed Consent 22 Confidentiality 23 Geographic Location 23 Data Collection 24 Data Collection Procedures 25 Instrumentation 27 Validity and Reliability 27 Internal validity. 28 External validity. 28 Reliability 28 Data Analysis 29 Summary 30 Chapter 4: Results 32 Data Collection Procedures 32 Interview Questions 36 Data Analysis and Results 40 Experience, Qualification, and Training 40 Current Training Opportunities 41 Leadership Style 42 Level of Work in Chinese Preschools 43 Pre paration for Primary School 44 Chapter Five: Conclusions 45 Appendix A: Pre-Screening Interview 47 Appendix B: Personal Interview Questions 48 Appendix C: Informed Consent 50 References 51 1. Introduction Many countries around the world have long debated the importance of preschool programs. Some tout the developmental advantages of children who attend such educational institutions from a very young age, while others insist that just as many advantages exist when children stay and play at home during this time. In China, preschool education begins as early as 1 year old. Typically, Chinese youngsters will attend preschool until 3 years of age, when they graduate into a more formal kindergarten program. In China, however, part of the problem exists in the disparity between urban and rural areas. In regards to preschool education, this separation is particularly noticeable and telling. In urban areas of China, preschool is a full time business. Parents can send their children to schoo l, as young as one year of age, either full time or part time. In addition, there is a growing trend towards boarding preschools, where parents can send their children during the week and bring them home for the weekend. Arguably, many contend that such a serious focus on educating such young children is a bit pretentious, while others insist that children attending such preschools gain a valuable edge as they enter primary school. The concept of preschool, however, has hit a difficult patch in rural areas. Most rural families either must pay to have their young children boarded in an urban preschool, or they are forced with the option of far inferior programs in their neighboring villages. Rural, remote, and poor areas of China typically see preschools that are more typical of Western style nursery (day care) centers. In addition, preschools in rural areas are often seasonal in nature, as the teachers typically have other duties to attend to on farms during certain times of the yea r. Recent years have seen an explosion in the number of preschool’s offered nationwide, primarily as a result of a government initiative that provides such educational offerings to children as young as one year of age. Basically, a combination of state, collective bodies, and private citizens has worked together to expand preschool offerings throughout the country of China. This is response

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 42

Marketing - Essay Example A personal touch with the customer, understanding his need, proper courtesy and a genuine smile is all that he longs for. It has something more to do with Max Weber bureaucracy or organizational pyramid (2) where everyone points a finger to the other one. In last two decade, the entire marketing scenario has gone through a paradigm shift and excellent customer service appears to be the deciding factor in this changing order. First of all, it is the sense of belonging, the proud ownership of the employees that literally change the face of the organization. The training of the employees that makes them serve the customer in a better manner plays the pivotal role. He should learn to communicate effectively, put a genuine smile in his face and be willing to serve his customer in every conceivable way. The stuffs should also know how to outmaneuver the customer without compromising the It is observed that a typical grocery shop stores 30,000 products and the owner answers same no of quarries. In supermarket the product listing may cross well past six digit marks but the product information which needs to be volunteered is surprisingly absent. The profit surges upwards if some subtle changes can be taken care of. For instance, Wal-Mart has a concerted return policy and a podium in every store where anyone can put a question regarding any service (3).The resultant outcome is a satisfied customer who returns again and again – to contribute to the profit of the organization. There can be multi pronged way to provide better customer care in a supermarket. Firstly, the proper motivations of the employees that work wonder. â€Å"At IBM, every one sells† as Buck Rodgers had put it in his best seller ‘The IBM Way’ (4) which should be the anthem of every supermarkets which aspires to make it big. From the doorman to the casher, every one needs to work in unison, compromising over everything except company ethics and profitability. The

The impact of Christian Religious Education Essay Example for Free

The impact of Christian Religious Education Essay Introduction: The context of studying religious in a society such as ours, Christian religious educations give me the opportunity to learn from religion (Christian religion) in an organized Manner. From my perspective, Christian religious education aims to support and develop my religious identity by giving me the opportunity to participate at Christian religious practices. Religious education like Christianity involves religious practices such as praying, caring for others, and dealing with the challenges of life. In these practices I see Christian religious education as an inspirational reality of God’s teaching; the only reliable tool that I rely on in the time of difficulties and challenges. The concepts of God, creation, redemption, or eternity are concepts that are difficult to understand unless with faith and the teaching of Christian religious education. From this standpoint, progress in Christian religious education refers to my participation at religious practices in a more proficient way. The aim of this paper is to get a clear view on the significance of studying Christian Religious Education and its impact on me as an individual. Growing up as a Kid: As a kid growing up I attended Catechism classes (first Holy Communion and Confirmation), as far as going to the seminary (Catholic seminary) after my graduation from high school. I attended catechism classes and was taught the Catholic doctrines and other Christian beliefs. Therefore, Christian religious education has impacted my life and my personal growth. Consequently, learning through religious education enables me to: Develop my knowledge and deepen my understanding of the Christian faith, especially my Catholic faith and other Christian beliefs. It helps me understand the relevance of the Catholic faith and the meaning of life. It fosters the values, attitudes and practices which are well-suited with my faith as Christian. Christian religious education develops my skills of reflection, critical thinking, and how to act in accordance when making moral decisions. It nurtures my prayer life as an individual. It helps me understand and appreciate significant aspects of other Christian traditions such as observing lent, the practice of station of the cross and advent season. The observance of all of these makes a positive difference to my Christian life and put my beliefs and values into action. The Influence of Christian Religion Education on me: The impact of Christian religious education on me is that it transfers Christian moral values and norms to me as person or individual growing up to become responsible and appreciating myself and others. It teaches me the actual duty of a Christian and acquaints me with religious practices and obedience to authorities in the neighborhood, homes, state and in the universal society. Christian religious education helps me to develop the knowledge and understanding of Christianity and especially, the catholic doctrine. Christian religious education specially the catholic doctrine have taught me some religious norms and it values and has encouraged me to learn from various religious beliefs, values and culture while at the same time, focusing my own beliefs regarding my religion. My study at the seminary and catechism classes has also help me to be mature personally and socially as well as refining my judgments and decisions on religious, moral and social issues, preparing me for life in a secular society. During my time in primary school I can clearly recall that Christian religious education in the context of catholic religious teachings popularly known as â€Å"doctrine† in catholic schools was a compulsory subject for us. It was mandatory subject, not an optional one. In fact anyone who could not pass doctrine in St. Francis high school (Pleebo, Maryland County) is assumed not to be able to do well or pass other subjects. As the result, Christian religious education gave me a stronger sense of my identity and it made me to know my place in the world that I live in through Christian religious and ethical teaching. Christian Religious education guides me through my spiritual journey. It motives me and helps me been focus on my spiritual life. If I don’t understand what I am implementing in my life, then I will end up losing focus in my Christian activities. Christian Religious education aids me in instructing me how to understand the existence of God and how to obey his commands. Christian Religious education assists me in keeping me from doing the wrong things and repeating the same mistakes over and over again. It instructs me to obey authorities and follow the teaching of the scriptures, so that I may teach the little one or my own kids the ways of life of my religion (Christian) and how to follow it teachings. Encourages me to look more into what I accept as true and reflect on that spiritual knowledge. It helps me understand the Word of God as expressed in the Christian scriptures and especially the teachings of the Catholic Church. And considering how situations can affect the way that I understand things in my lives and the world around me. Reflecting on the Catholic beliefs that my life has meaning, therefore, the essence of Christian religious education is to help me to value the teachings of the scriptures and that which God reveals in our lives. It helps me recognize such knowledge and understand issues which are never fully realized except in actual relationships with the scripture (God) or teaching of Christian religion education. It helps me truly develop and engage common issues in concrete actions. Why Christian Religion Education Matters to me? Christian Religious education makes a distinctive contribution to my well-being. It promotes my moral, social and above all my spiritual, development. It prepares me for societal challenges and future responsibilities. Religion and beliefs inform our values and are reflected in what we say and how we behave. Christian Religious education try to explain or give meaning to challenging questions about the ultimate meaning and purpose of life, beliefs about God, and the nature of reality, issues of right and wrong and what it means to be human. It develops my knowledge and understanding of the nature of religion and belief including Christianity, and other principal religious issues, such as the TRINITY, (three persons in one God). God the FATHER, God the SON and God the HOLY SPIRIT, philosophy that are difficult to understand. Christian religious education offers me the opportunities for personal reflection and spiritual development. It enhances my awareness and understanding of Christianity and beliefs, teachings and practices. Christian religious education had impacted my life, to be more precise, it helps me to understand issues of faith and the existence of God. There are things I cannot do because of my beliefs and faith. I cannot take away human life, because I have value for other and the life of people. I cannot encourage abortion or homosexual arts. Taking away other life is murder, murder is a crime. Christian religious education, specially my doctrine (catholic doctrines) forbids that. And Christian religious educations help enhance and foster my beliefs. Therefore, my value of God is deepening. Christian religious education today is vital. As the issue of extremism emerges, I begun to wonder how these people lost their moral direction and they have turn against society in the name of religion. One might want to look to their religion as one aspect of what shaped their thinking. Instead of judge them; I extend forgiveness, because my religion (Christianity) teaches me how to forgive. After all, Christ said in the Bible â€Å"he who is without sin should cast the first stone. † Christian religious education is priceless. Christian religion offer open debate about all moral and ethical points of view. It is open to free debate, unlike other religions which forbids open discussion of some critical issues. In order to combat ignorance, Christian religious educations enlighten my mind. It causes me to act as detects by the scripture or my doctrine. The reason a society falls is its lack of morality. Christian religious education taught me about morality, ethics and to love others, even if they don’t act very loving toward me. The skills, understanding and knowledge acquired from Christian religious education during my seminary and catechism class’s days, couple with my Christian ethics class at AMEU is very necessary. They help to broaden my knowledge and positively sharp my thinking to be mature in my attitudes. Christian religious educations help me to be open minded, value for others and self understanding. Experiencing self-assurance about my own beliefs and identity and increasing my perception of my religious, moral and spiritual ideas. Conclusion: In conclusion to this paper, I will say Christian religious education from all angle and from all area of society has shown without any doubt its significance on me as individual and society cannot be ignored. Christian Religious Education has prove to make available openings for spiritual expansion in the course of helping me to think about and act in response to questions of meaning and function in life, and questions about the s existence of God and morals in human society; to consider and react to critical issues especially issues of morality and real challenges of life. This has helped me to make clear and knowledgeable decision on religious and moral issues. Our society today is face with many moral issues, such as same sex marriage know as gay marriage and the issue of abortion. Christian religious education has helped to develop my sense of character and belonging, preparing me for life as individual in society. It gives me consciousness and understanding of my beliefs, including practices and values of Christianity. Christian Religious Education is a tool that strengthen my ethical attitude and values, including choices and behavior and my believed toward abortion, drugs and homosexuality. Bibliography: Novak, M. (2001): On Two Wings: Humble Faith and Common Sense. Fagan, P. F. (2006): The Impact of Religious Practice, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 1064, [2] Brown, D. R. , and Gary, L. E. (1991): An Empirical Assessment, Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 60, No. 3.

My Papa’s Waltz - Battered Knuckles Essays -- My Papas Waltz Essays

My Papa’s Waltz - Battered Knuckles  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many people look back on memories with a pleasant slant. A backpacker may love to go to the mountains, but every time that person ventures out he encounters a blizzard. The weather is not always conducive to the backpacker and can cause great discomfort. However, when the hiker returns to his normal routine he usually forgets about the bad experience so that he can continue loving the mountains and happily plan his next adventure. Similarly, Theodore Roethke's, "My Papa's Waltz" is a poem about a man who tries to make a horrible event into something much more pleasant to think about. The speaker seems to be remembering back to his childhood and finally uncovers dark memories about his father. The child in the poem finally realizes that childhood was full of scary nights in which he sometimes feared for his life. The speaker has tried for years to believe that he loved his father, but he finally understands what really happened in his boyhood home. The speaker in this poem begins by commenting on how much his father drinks. The father ...

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ideas †¢ thinkers †¢ practice david a. kolb on experiential learning David A. Kolb's model of experiential learning can be found in many discussions of the theory and practice of adult education, informal education and lifelong learning. We set out the model, and examine its possibilities and problems. contents: †¢ introduction †¢ david a. olb †¢ david kolb on experiential learning †¢ david kolb on learning styles †¢ issues †¢ developments – jarvis on learning †¢ a guide to reading †¢ links †¢ how to cite this piece As Stephen Brookfield (1983: 16) has commented, writers in the field of experiential learning have tended to use the term in two contrasting senses. On the one hand the term is used to describe the sort of learning undertaken by students who are given a chance to acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting.Experiential learning thus involves a, ‘direct encounter w ith the phenomena being studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it. ‘ (Borzak 1981: 9 quoted in Brookfield 1983). This sort of learning is sponsored by an institution and might be used on training programmes for professions such as social work and teaching or in field study programmes such as those for social administration or geography courses.The second type of experiential learning is ‘education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life' (Houle 1980: 221). Here learning is not sponsored by some formal educational institution but by people themselves. It is learning that is achieved through reflection upon everyday experience and is the way that most of us do our learning. Much of the literature on experiential learning, as Peter Jarvis comments (1995: 75), ‘is actually about learning from primary experience, that is learning through sense experiences'.He continues, â €˜unfortunately it has tended to exclude the idea of secondary experience entirely'. Jarvis also draws attention to the different uses of the term, citing Weil and McGill's (1989: 3) categorization of experiential learning into four ‘villages': Village One is concerned particularly with assessing and accrediting learning from life and work experience†¦. Village Two focuses on experiential learning as a basis for bringing change in the structures†¦ of post-school education†¦. Village Three emphasizes experiential learning as a basis for group consciousness raising†¦.Village Four is concerned about personal growth and self-awareness. These ‘villages' of approaches retain a focus on primary experience (and do not really problematize the notion of experience itself). Jarvis (1995: 77-80) makes the case for a concern for secondary or indirect experience (occurring through linguistic communication). While there have been various additions to the literatu re, such as the above, it is the work of David A. Kolb (1976; 1981; 1984) and his associate Roger Fry (Kolb and Fry 1975) that still provides the central reference point for discussion.Following on from Kolb's work there has been a growing literature around experiential learning and this is indicative of greater attention to this area by practitioners – particularly in the area of higher education. David Kolb's interest lay in exploring the processes associated with making sense of concrete experiences – and the different styles of learning that may be involved. In this he makes explicit use of the work of Piaget, Dewey and Lewin. David A. Kolb David A. Kolb is Professor of Organizational Behavior in the Weatheread School of Management.He joined the School in 1976. Born in 1939, Kolb received his Batchelor of Arts from Knox College in 1961, his MA from Harvard in 1964 and his PhD from Harvard in 1967. Besides his work on experiential learning, David A. Kolb is also kno wn for his contribution to thinking around organizational behaviour (1995a; 1995b). He has an interest in the nature of individual and social change, experiential learning, career development and executive and professional education. David Kolb on experiential learning David A.Kolb (with Roger Fry) created his famous model out of four elements: concrete experience, observation and reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and testing in new situations. He represented these in the famous experiential learning circle that involves (1) concrete experience followed by (2) observation and experience followed by (3) forming abstract concepts followed by (4) testing in new situations (after Kurt Lewin). It is a model that appears time and again. Kolb and Fry (1975) argue that the learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points – and that it should really be approached as a continuous spiral.However, it is suggested that the learning process often begins with a person car rying out a particular action and then seeing the effect of the action in this situation. Following this, the second step is to understand these effects in the particular instance so that if the same action was taken in the same circumstances it would be possible to anticipate what would follow from the action. In this pattern the third step would be understanding the general principle under which the particular instance falls.Generalizing may involve actions over a range of circumstances to gain experience beyond the particular instance and suggest the general principle. Understanding the general principle does not imply, in this sequence, an ability to express the principle in a symbolic medium, that is, the ability to put it into words. It implies only the ability to see a connection between the actions and effects over a range of circumstances. (Coleman 1976: 52). An educator who has learnt in this way may well have various rules of thumb or generalizations about what to do in d ifferent situations.They will be able to say what action to take when say, there is tension between two people in a group but they will not be able to verbalize their actions in psychodynamic or sociological terms. There may thus be difficulties about the transferability of their learning to other settings and situations. When the general principle is understood, the last step, according to David Kolb is its application through action in a new circumstance within the range of generalization. In some representations of experiential learning these steps, (or ones like them), are sometimes represented as a circular movement.In reality, if learning has taken place the process could be seen as a spiral. The action is taking place in a different set of circumstances and the learner is now able to anticipate the possible effects of the action. Two aspects can be seen as especially noteworthy: the use of concrete, ‘here-and-now' experience to test ideas; and use of feedback to change practices and theories (Kolb 1984: 21-22). Kolb joins these with Dewey to emphasize the developmental nature of the exercise, and with Piaget for an appreciation of cognitive development.He named his model so as to emphasize the link with Dewey, Lewin and Piaget, and to stress the role experience plays in learning. He wished to distinguish it from cognitive theories of the learning process (see Coleman 1976). David Kolb on learning styles David Kolb and Roger Fry (1975: 35-6) argue that effective learning entails the possession of four different abilities (as indicated on each pole of their model): concrete experience abilities, reflective observation abilities, abstract conceptualization abilities and active experimentation abilities.Few us can approach the ‘ideal' in this respect and tend, they suggest, to develop a strength in, or orientation to, in one of the poles of each dimension. As a result they developed a learning style inventory (Kolb 1976) which was designed to pl ace people on a line between concrete experience and abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation and reflective observation. Using this Kolb and Fry proceeded to identify four basic learning styles. Kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant 1996) Learning style Learning characteristicDescriptionConvergerAbstract conceptualization + active experimentation†¢ strong in practical application of ideas †¢ can focus on hypo-deductive reasoning on specific problems †¢ unemotional †¢ has narrow interests DivergerConcrete experience + reflective observation†¢ strong in imaginative ability †¢ good at generating ideas and seeing things from different perspectives †¢ interested in people †¢ broad cultural interests AssimilatorAbstract conceptualization + reflective observation†¢ strong ability to create theoretical models excels in inductive reasoning †¢ concerned with abstract concepts rather than peopleAccommodatorConcrete experience + active experimentation†¢ greatest strength is doing things †¢ more of a risk taker †¢ performs well when required to react to immediate circumstances †¢ solves problems intuitively In developing this model Kolb and Fry have helped, along with Witkin (1950), have helped to challenge those models of learning that seek to reduce potential to one dimension such as intelligence (Tennant 1997: 91). They also recognize that there are strengths and weaknesses associated with each style (and that being ‘locked into' one style can put a learner at a serious disadvantage).However, there are a number of problems with the model. Issues Here I want to note six key issues that arise out the Kolb model: It pays insufficient attention to the process of reflection (see Boud et al 1983). While David A. Kolb's scheme ‘has been useful in assisting us in planning learning activities and in helping us to check simply that learners can be effectively engaged', they comment , ‘it does not help†¦ to uncover the elements of reflection itself' (ibid. : 13), see reflection. The claims made for the four different learning styles are extravagant (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997).As Tennant (1997: 91) comments, even though the four learning styles neatly dovetail with the different dimensions of the experiential learning model, this doesn't necessarily validate them. David Kolb is putting forward a particular learning style. The problem here is that the experiential learning model does not apply to all situations. There are alternatives – such as information assimilation. There are also others such as memorization. Each of these may be appropriate to different situations (see Jarvis below). The model takes very little account of different cultural experiences/conditions (Anderson 1988).The Inventory has also been used within a fairly limited range of cultures (an important consideration if we approach learning as situated i. e. affected by environ ments). As Anderson (1988, cited in Tennant 1996) highlights, there is a need to take account of differences in cognitive and communication styles that are culturally-based. Here we need to attend to different models of selfhood – and the extent to which these may differ from the ‘western' assumptions that underpin the Kolb and Fry model. The idea of stages or steps does not sit well with the reality of thinking.There is a problem here – that of sequence. As Dewey (1933) has said in relation to reflection a number of processes can occur at once, stages can be jumped. This way of presenting things is rather too neat and is simplistic – see reflection. Empirical support for the model is weak (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997). The initial research base was small, and there have only been a limited number of studies that have sought to test or explore the model (such as Jarvis 1987). Furthermore, the learning style inventory ‘has no capacity to measure the deg ree of integration of learning styles' (Tennant 1997: 92).The relationship of learning processes to knowledge is problematic. As Jarvis (1987) again points out, David Kolb is able to show that learning and knowledge are intimately related. However, two problems arise here. David Kolb doesn't really explore the nature of knowledge in any depth. In chapter five of Experiential Learning he discusses the structure of knowledge from what is basically a social psychology perspective. He doesn't really connect with the rich and varied debates about the nature of knowledge that raged over the centuries within philosophy and social theory.This means that I do not think he really grasps different ways of knowing. For example, Kolb focuses on processes in the individual mind, rather than seeing learning as situated. Second, for David Kolb, learning is concerned with the production of knowledge. ‘Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it' (Kolb 1984 : 41). Here we might contrast this position with Paulo Freire. His focus is upon informed, committed action (praxis). Given these problems we have to take some care approaching David Kolb's vision of experiential learning.However, as Tennant (1997: 92) points out, ‘the model provides an excellent framework for planning teaching and learning activities and it can be usefully employed as a guide for understanding learning difficulties, vocational counselling, academic advising and so on'. Developments – Peter Jarvis on (experiential) learning Jarvis (1987, 1995) set out to show that there are a number of responses to the potential learning situation. He used Kolb's model with a number of different adult groups and asked them to explore it based on their own experience of learning.He was then able to develop a model of which allowed different routes. Some of these are non-learning, some non-reflective learning, and some reflective learning. To see these we need to trace ou t the trajectories on the diagram he produces. reproduced from Jarvis 1994 Non-learning: Presumption (boxes 1-4). This is where people interact through patterned behaviour. Saying hello etc. Non-consideration (1-4). Here the person does not respond to a potential learning situation. Rejection (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 9). Non-reflective: Pre-conscious (boxes 1-3 to 6 to either 4 or 9).This form occurs to every person as a result of having experiences in daily living that are not really thought about. Skimming across the surface. Practice (boxes 1-3 to 5 to 8 to 6 to either 4 or 9). Traditionally this has been restricted to things like training for a manual occupation or acquiring particular physical skills. It may also refer to the acquisition of language itself. Memorization (boxes 1-3 to 6 and possibly 8 to 6 and then either to 4 or 9) Reflective learning: Contemplation (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). Here the person considers it and makes an intellectual decision about it.Reflective pr actice (boxes 1-3 (to 5) to 7 to 5 to 6 to 9). This is close to what Schon describes as relfection on and in action. Experiential learning (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 5 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). The way in which pragmatic knowledge may be learned. While this represents a useful addition to our thinking about learning, a number of problems remain. There is still an issue around sequence – many things may be happening at once, but Jarvis' model falls into trap of stage thinking. As with Kolb's work there is a limited experimental base to support it.We can also ask questions as to whether these are different forms or routes – or can they grouped together in a different and more compact way. Further reading and references The literature around this area can be pretty dire. We have picked one or two of the better collections/explorations plus a couple ‘standards'. Boud, D. et al (eds. ) (1985) Reflection. Turning experience into learning, London: Kogan Page. 170 pages. Good collec tion of readings which examine the nature of reflection. The early chapters make particular use of Dewey and Kolb. Boud. D. and Miller, N. eds. ) (1997) Working with Experience: animating learning, London: Routledge. Useful collection of pieces exploring experiential learning. The editors focus on animation (not so much in the French and Italian senses as ‘breathing life into' – to activate, enliven, vivify. Includes introductory and closing pieces by the editors: Brookfield on breaking dependence on experts; Smyth on socially critical educators; Heron on helping whole people learn; Tisdell on life experience and feminist theory; Harris on animating learning in teams; and Mace on writing and power.Fraser, W. (1995) Learning From Experience. Empowerment or incorporation, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education. Examines APL / APEL and asks what is lost and gained in the translation of private experience into the public sphere. Based on the experience of various courses. Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context, London: Croom Helm. 220 pages. Peter Jarvis uses Kolb's model to explore the process of learning in context. The result is a better appreciation of context and the ability to approach memorization, contemplation, practice etc.However, he also inherits a number of problems e. g. around stages. The model is revisited and summarized in P. Jarvis (1995) Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge. Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, F. P. (1996) Joining Together: Group theory and group skills, 6e. , Boston, Mass. : Allyn and Bacon. 612 pages. Rightly popular practical groupwork guide with plenty of examples and exercises, plus some good foundational chapters. It was one of the first texts to pick up on Kolb and to link experiential learning with the work around groups by Lewin and others.Chapters on group dynamics; experiential learning; group goals and social independence; communications w ithin groups; leadership; decision making; controversy and creativity; conflicts of interest, the uses of power; dealing with diversity; leading learning and discussion groups; leading growth and counselling groups; and team development, team training. Keeton, M. T. (ed. ) (1976) Experiential Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ageing but still useful collection. See, in particular, Coleman's contrasting of information assimilation with experiential learning. Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. : Prentice Hall. 256 pages. Full statement and discussion of Kolb's ideas concerning experiential learning. Chapters deal with the foundation of contemporary approaches to experiential learning; the process of experiential learning; structural foundations of the learning process; individuality in learning and the concept of learning styles; the structure of knowledge; the experiential learning theory of development; learning and development in higher education; li felong learning and integrative development. Mezirow, J. 1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 247 + xix pages. Develops a comprehensive theory of how adults learn by making meanings of their experiences. Particular focus on perspective transformation. Weil, S. Warner & McGill, I. (eds. ) (1989) Making Sense of Experiential Learning. Diversity in theory and practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Pres s. The texts on experiential learning tend to be rather atheoretical (and often precious). This text doesn't totally escape this – but has a number of useful contributions. ReferencesAnderson, J. A. (1988) ‘Cognitive styles and multicultural populations', Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1): 2-9. Brookfield, S. D. (1983) Adult Learning, Adult Education and the Community Milton Keynes Open University Press. Borzak, L. (ed. ) (1981) Field Study. A source book for experiential learning, Beverley Hills: Sage Publications. Dewey, J. (19 33) How We Think, New York: Heath. Houle, C. (1980) Continuing Learning in the Professions, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jarvis, P. (1994) ‘Learning', ICE301 Lifelong Learning, Unit 1(1), London: YMCA George Williams College.Jarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge. Kolb, A. and Kolb D. A. (2001) Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography 1971-2001, Boston, Ma. : McBer and Co, http://trgmcber. haygroup. com/Products/learning/bibliography. htm Kolb, D. A. (1976) The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual, Boston, Ma. : McBer. Kolb, D. A. (1981) ‘Learning styles and disciplinary differences'. in A. W. Chickering (ed. ) The Modern American College, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kolb, D. A. (with J. Osland and I.Rubin) (1995a) Organizational Behavior: An Experiential Approach to Human Behavior in Organizations 6e, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kolb, D. A. (with J. Osland and I. Rubin) (1995b) The Organizational Behavi or Reader 6e, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kolb. D. A. and Fry, R. (1975) ‘Toward an applied theory of experiential learning;, in C. Cooper (ed. ) Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley. Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner, New York: Basic Books Tennant, M. (1997) Psychology and Adult Learning 2e, London: Routledge. Witkin, H. and Goodenough, D. 1981) Cognitive Styles, Essences and Origins: Field dependence and field independence, New York: Links Experiential learning: helpful review of sites by Tim Pickles. Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography: Prepared by Alice Kolb and David Kolb, this is an extensive bibliography of on experiential learning theory from 1971-2001. Acknowledgement: The workshop picture representing experiential learning is from the EFEO Action Workshops in 2008. It was taken by devilarts and is copyrighted. It is reproduced here under a Creative Commons licence (Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2. Generic) flickr: http://ww w. flickr. com/photos/devilarts/2458317215/. How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (2001). ‘David A. Kolb on experiential learning', the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved [enter date] from http://www. infed. org/b-explrn. htm.  © Mark K. Smith 1996, 2001. infed is a not-for-profit site [about us] [disclaimer] provided by the YMCA George Williams College. Give us feedback; write for us. Check our privacy policy and, when copying, our copyright notice. Join us on Facebook and Twitter. 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Essay On Hurricanes - 865 Words

It was August 25, 2017. Craig, his wife Sarah, and their cats, Mimi and Carol, were in their living room of their one story house watching the news in Houston, Texas at about 12:00pm. The news was talking about the weather for that day. All of the sudden, the electricity went out. The house was starting to flood. Sarah had been on her phone, texting her friend. Sarah lost internet connection so she decided to go do something else. She started to read a book, but then she remembered that she needed to pack for her trip the next day. She went into their room to pack a few things for the trip. Then, the master bedroom started to flood. Sarah ran out of the room and went to get the radio. Sadly, Sarah couldnt find it. Her husband was†¦show more content†¦You could smell all of the chemicals in the water. Craig knew that he wouldnt be able to drink the water. The smell of the water was so horrid, that Craig and Sarah had to plug their noses. Craig accidently got some water in his mouth, and spit it out immediately. The water tasted awful! It tasted like salt water with chemicals in it! The water had garbage, oils, chemicals, acids, and other objects that the couple couldnt figure out what they were since the water was as mucky as a dirty fish tank. Craig started pushing the raft to get away. Sarah sat on the raft to keep the cats happy. Craig didnt mind seeing as Sarah was pretty light. A few hours later, Craig was still pushing the raft. He then saw a small place next to a worn down casino that Sarah and him could stay. He pushed the raft over to the spot. The two set up. We are under a roof! Sarah screamed quietly, but happily. Yes we are, replied Craig. Craig placed the cats on the ground and opened their carriers, but they moved closer to the back wall. Once they finished setting up where they would stay for the next few days, Sarah lay down to take a nap. Craig decided that it would be better if he stayed up in case they were forced to move their spot again. A few hours went by before Sarah woke up. Once she woke up, it was 9:00pm. The two ate something and then went to bed. A couple of days later, the water finally retreated and the couple started to get ready to go home. Once they gotShow MoreRelatedHurricane Essay1485 Words   |  6 Pages26, 2009 Essay Assignment GE-253 Hurricanes Have you ever heard tropical storms pushing winds up to 200 mph and causing destruction everywhere? A true beast of nature we call a hurricane. These hurricanes can show up at any time to make a mess of things. To fully understand hurricanes we have to peer into the history, calculate the physics, plot the storm’s movements and actions, respect the power of such storms, and prepare ourselves if a storm is headed our way. 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